Why the Conservative party lost popularity between 1900-1905 Essays

Why the Conservative party lost popularity between 1900-1905 Essays Why the Conservative party lost popularity between 1900-1905 Paper Why the Conservative party lost popularity between 1900-1905 Paper The conservative party lost an enormous amount of popularity between the years 1900-1905, this loss of popularity affected them in the 1906 election, during the run up to the election certain things the conservatives did had an impact on the end outcome. I will be explaining these factors which I think were mostly to blame. The Anglo-Boer War in 1899-1902, the Taff vale decision in 1901 and the causes of Chinese slavery all had an impact on the loss of popularity. The Anglo-Boer war arose from an unexpected dispute; this was between the Dutch and the British. Reasons why the conservative’s party lost popularity were due to the conservatives provoking the war without a valid reason, the war started out of nowhere. Britain had intentions of becoming a powerful nation, in order to satisfy this Chamberlain made unreasonable demands on Boer, meaning Boer had no choice and they were forced to retaliate. The war was moving at a slow pace and nothing much was happening. It was obvious that the war was deliberately done making the people of Britain very upset, ‘Pro-Boers’ were known as people against Britain at war. The Pro-Boers questioned the morality and realism of their country, and how it was so obvious that it was purposely done. People of Britain were deprived and unhappy, this hate affected the conservative’s popularity and the public could not trust them in power. Therefore meant that many people opposed the conservatives in starting the Anglo-Boer, this clearly shows that it affected the public back home and it was obvious that the party wasn’t going to have support. This is one of the reasons why they lost popularity between 1900 and 1905. In 1900, the Taff Vale Railway Company in South Wales went on strike with their union. However this strike caused major conflict between the Union and the company. The company did not accept the strike movement so they decided to hire non-union workers to replace the union ones. By doing this they took the opportunity to take the union workers to court for illegal picketing. The railway company won this case and the workers were forced to come back to work empty handed. After the victory of this case, the company took the union workers to the courts once again, this time the case went to the House of Lords, and The House of Lords accepted the company’s decision and the workers were highly disappointed that the conservatives were not in favour of the working class. Considering the House of Lords are mostly made up of wealthy individuals and are supporters of the conservative party, it was fairly quick for the British public to realise how ignorant the conservative party were to the working class. This shocked many people and this was possibly one of the main reasons why the Tories lost popularity. They clearly had no moral empathy towards the working class and they didn’t receive any acceptance or recognition from the working class. Once of the minor issues that affected the Tories popularity was when, Arthur Balfour was accused of Chinese Slaves in Africa working on gold and diamond mines. This was seen as very disrespectful, due to them making others work for them, it certainly was selfish of Balfour to do that. These slaves would work in appalling conditions. The public to hear these disheartening stories gave them a fright. People of Britain couldn’t penetrate why Balfour was doing such corruption to Britain as a country, setting out negativity to neighbouring countries. Over all the public was unhappy over the inadequacy of the government which would have lost party support and popularity. Between 1900-1905, the conservatives party was in a very bad position, due to many of their decisions, one of the factors that led them to loss of popularity was the Anglo-Boer war, the public reaction to the was not supportive. The manner of Britain was highly selfish and pointless, because they gained nothing from that war, it was unnecessary and a waste of time. Britain was embarrassed, and this is one of the reasons they lost their popularity. Using Chinese slaves to work in the gold and diamond mines in Africa was also an immense disappointment for the public, as they saw it as moral wrong doings. This put Balfour in a shameless position; he was hated by many and lost major support, setting out a bad example to the people of Britain and neighbouring countries. Lastly the most important and effective way they lost the acceptance was the Taff Vale decision, just because it was the decline of the workers not allowing them to go on strike even though they had the full backing and financial aid of their union, it was very unfair and it demonstrated that the Tories were not supporters of the working class, they were for the upper class, this controversy was one of the main reasons why they lost fame, it outweighed the other factors because they separated the workers into a group of their own with no supporters certainly wasn’t fair to the workers. This was definitely the main reason why the conservative party lost recognition and supporters.

The Manhattan Project Timeline

The Manhattan Project Timeline The Manhattan Project was a secret research project that was created to help America design and build an atomic bomb. This was created in reaction to Nazi scientists who had discovered how to split a uranium atom in 1939. In fact, President Franklin Roosevelt was not that concerned when Albert Einstein first wrote him about the possible consequences of splitting the atom. Einstein had previously discussed his concerns with Enrico Fermi who had escaped from Italy. However, by 1941 Roosevelt had decided to create a group to research and develop the bomb. The project was given its name due to the fact that at least 10 of the sites used for the research were located in Manhattan. Following is a timeline of the key events related to the development of the atomic bomb and the Manhattan Project.   Manhattan Project Timeline DATE EVENT 1931 Heavy Hydrogen or deuterium is discovered by Harold C. Urey. 1932 The atom is split by John Crockcroft and E.T.S. Walton of Great Britain, thereby proving Einsteins Theory of Relativity. 1933 Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard realizes the possibility of the nuclear chain reaction. 1934 The first nuclear fission is achieved by Enrico Fermi of Italy. 1939 The Theory of Nuclear Fission is announced by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch. January 26, 1939 At a conference at George Washington University, Niels Bohr announces the discovery of fission. January 29,1939 Robert Oppenheimer realizes the military possibilities of nuclear fission. August 2, 1939 Albert Einstein writes to President Franklin Roosevelt concerning the use of uranium as a new source of energy leading to the formation of the Committee on Uranium. September 1, 1939 World War II Begins. February 23, 1941 Plutonium is discovered by Glenn Seaborg. October 9, 1941 FDR gives the go-ahead for the development of an atomic weapon. December 6, 1941 FDR authorizes the Manhattan Engineering District for the purpose of creating an atomic bomb. This would later be called the Manhattan Project. September 23, 1942 Colonel Leslie Groves is placed in charge of the Manhattan Project. J. Robert Oppenheimer becomes the Projects Scientific Director. December 2, 1942 First controlled nuclear fission reaction is produced by Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago. May 5, 1943 Japan becomes the primary target for any future atomic bomb according to the Military Policy Committee of the Manhattan Project. April 12, 1945 Franklin Roosevelt dies. Harry Truman is named the 33rd President of the US. April 27, 1945 The Target Committee of the Manhattan Project select four cities as possible targets for the atomic bomb. They are Kyoto, Hiroshima, Kokura, and Niigata. May 8, 1945 War ends in Europe. May 25, 1945 Leo Szilard attempts to warn President Truman in person concerning the dangers of atomic weapons. July 1, 1945 Leo Szilard begins a petition to get President Truman to call off using the atomic bomb in Japan. July 13, 1945 American intelligence discovers the only obstacle to peace with Japan is unconditional surrender. July 16, 1945 The worlds first atomic detonation takes place in the Trinity Test at Alamogordo, New Mexico. July 21, 1945 President Truman orders atomic bombs to be used. July 26, 1945 Potsdam Declaration is issued, calling for the unconditional surrender of Japan. July 28, 1945 Potsdam Declaration is rejected by Japan. August 6, 1945 Little Boy, a uranium bomb, is detonated over Hiroshima, Japan. It kills between 90,000 and 100,000 people immediately. Harry Truman's Press Release August 7, 1945 U.S. decides to drop warning pamphlets on Japanese cities. August 9, 1945 The second atomic bomb to hit Japan, Fat Man, was scheduled to be dropped at Kokura. However, because of poor weather, the target was moved to Nagasaki. August 9, 1945 President Truman addresses the nation. August 10, 1945 U.S. drops warning leaflets concerning another atomic bomb on Nagasaki, the day after the bomb was dropped. September 2, 1945 Japan announces its formal surrender. October 1945 Edward Teller approaches Robert Oppenheimer to aid in the building of a new hydrogen bomb. Oppenheimer refuses.

Personal statement to Solar Energy Engineering Masters application Essay

Personal statement to Solar Energy Engineering Masters application - Essay Example One of the reasons I want to pursue a master’s degree in engineering is because I want to become a full time professor in the future. The fact that bilingual (English / Spanish) is a great attribute to have as an educator. In 2005 I moved to Boston and started working in the field of sales engineering of different instrumentation companies while at the same time teaching part time at Wentworth Institute of Technology. One of the best learning experiences about my sales job was the opportunity to different parts of Latin America and visit factories and rural places. I am interested in the Umass Lowell’s Master of Science Degree Program in Energy Engineering because of my interest in solar energy. I read about the different projects in place such as the Peru Project and would like to eventually implement something similar in Mexican communities and other Latin American communities where there is no electricity, telephone service, and untreated drinking water.

Rewright this paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Rewright this paper - Essay Example For instance, in general, young ones are much more respectful to elders than they are to peers. This, I believe, is not so much a part of their intrinsic personality than something that is expected from them in social environment. I disagree with Goffman’s argument on the differentiation of roles and identities. I do not think these need to be differentiated since both – the person one really is, and the person he aims to be perceived as – are fundamentally derived from the person’s original identity. Human identity is a complex entity and is made up of a variety of things like one’s history, experiences, character, interests, etc. People may not just have two sides to them- one with a mask and one without. I believe that people have several different characteristics in them, and in an attempt to relate to others and not feel isolated, they bring out different sides of themselves in different social situations. Impression management is essential as it aids people in gaining a sense of respect and familiarity in foreign surroundings. On the whole, it provides society with order and structure. Though self-expression individualism and important qualities, I believe that these need to be kept under control in certain environments, especially those which require professionalism from a person. Even if it is an interaction with one’s parents or close friends, a certain socially acceptable behaviour is required of everyone. Impression management is a technique that is always at work, except for the times when a person is completely by himself. A common example of conscious impression management in a social environment is boarding school. When every year, a small group of new students enter the school, they interact with seniors who have already formed a closed community amongst themselves. In order to be accepted to this closed community, the freshmen change their mentalities and

Changing Marketing Strategies of Pharmaceutical Companies

Changing Marketing Strategies of Pharmaceutical Companies Abstract Pharmaceutical companies spend large sums of money in the time-consuming research and development of new drugs and the new classes of drugs. Each company marketing in the US seeks the possible payoff of staggering high profits which is possible on their patented medicines. Because of the lack of price regulation in the marketing environment in the United States, the United States has become a premium sales market targeted by all pharmaceutical companies. This explains the continued willingness of each pharmaceutical company to persist through the entire long process of idea, creation, development, testing, approval, marketing and distribution despite the high possibility of product failure. The pharmaceutical companies have had to additionally contend with more US federal FDA rules, regulation and oversight in the United States for the entire process before receiving clearance to start marketing their drug product. Other influences like HMOs and Social Security cap limits affect prof itability structure. Over the last fifty years newer marketing strategies by pharmaceutical companies on prescription drugs include a directive appeal to the end consumer to increase the odds of making corporate profits and a marketing focus on social and internet interaction. Introduction Pharmaceutical companies produce specialized medical drug material designed to fill a need. These pharmaceutical companies are usually multinational operations located in key countries around the globe. Many have grown to become complete facilities that attempt to do the entire spectrum of research, develop, test and finally market the subject drug in order to reap the whole benefits possible from the entire cycle (Kaitin, 2010). The pharmaceutical industry has shown over time that they have the capability to increase consumer perceived value with their unique drug products using their own successful plans for timely marketing. But because of these old and new factors causing cumulative hurtles, a new trend in marketing in the pharmaceutical industry is now to additionally market direct to the customer, for example: TV advertising spots showing a new superior drug product which has special features making it directly appealing to a consumer. Changes in basic marketing structure tacti cs will be evaluated for the key levels of pressure from these internal and external factors as these pharmaceutical companies seek to address continuing ongoing product failure rates, increasing US regulation and the ever present potential competition from others inside their own industry. This trend has been a natural development over the last hundred years or so. This is reasonable because the same research that produces one drug may produce an entire class of drugs for market. Confidentiality, control, patents and oversight give these pharmaceutical companies the oversight. It also allows each pharmaceutical company to keep maximum control of all their connected environments. And by controlling these the final marketing each company achieve continues the cycle of giving the most control over the drug for the marketing campaign. The drug industry often competes worldwide and on different economic levels but in some specific territorial markets like the United States, pricing structures are not preset by the government and therefore the free market sets its own competitive standards for pricing giving the possibility and most often the probability of higher drug prices with the resultant bigger profit level opportunities. However these are offset by rigorous structural standard guidelines set by the FDA that must be complied with for any drug sold or marketed to the US public. In the past, drug companies in United States, marketed to doctors, hospitals, nursing homes and sometimes middleman companies as transitional handlers of the newest product. Marketing drugs in the United states has now changed as developers are now targeting consumers directly through television spots, online advertising and in print ads. The direct appeal is to make the end point consumer aware of the name of the drug and its benefits. The object is to have the consumer become familiar with the trade name, ask for the drug directly from their doctor thus boosting the initial sales of the new product and creating a ready market. Industry History Marchetti Schellens (2007) outline the structures of development showing it to be complex and expensive. Not only does the potential class or specific drug have to be discovered or created, it has to show promise for certain illness or disease, then pharmaceutical research can proceed through certain phases. Pharmaceutical companies have a history of costly product failures. Generally theres three clinical phrases and all this can take upwards of 15 years to complete. Additionally the FDA has trended over the last decade to creating higher pressures against drug companies by not approving as many new drugs for marketing. The probability odds are that any specific drug in early clinical phase has only 8% chance or less of ever becoming public (Food and Drug Administration, 2006) (Kummar, 2007). In the United States the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has sought to control the drugs available to Americans because of the number of tragedies that have resulted in birth defects o r deaths. The most highly publicized incident was in the mid-1960s and the drug was called thalidomide which for pregnant women often resulted in severe birth defects. As an end result of public outrage creating governmental pressures, the pharmaceutical companies are overseen at all levels and must now successful clinical trials. Lamb(1998) writes that testing protocols have been standardized and once clinical trials are completed there is a analysis period with the end result being an application to the FDA called an NDA ( new drug application) which contains all the technical information. Over the last forty years (1970s -2010) and now in 2011 differential forces are in opposition to the ends of pharmaceutical companies. Environmental and safety issues, new technologies, mergers and the rise of managed care and health maintenance organizations (HMOs) have all effectively changed the environment thats pharmaceutical companies operate in. additionally in 1997 the FDA changed regulations relating to the presentation of risk level. This action in the United States opened the door for pharmaceutical companies to directly market to the public .This freedom for the pharmaceutical companies is offset by the FDA still having oversight surveillance of the specific phases and clinical approval. The FDA must approve the drug. After the drug is marketed there is oversight for continued compliance by the pharmaceutical companies to ensure a low-level of side effects during marketing. Post approval by the FDA comes solely after this period (Silverman, 2011). Pharmaceutical company spending on marketing exceeds that spent on research.[3][22] In 2004 in Canada $1.7 billion a year was spent marketing drugs to physicians and in the United States $21 billion were spent in 2002.[4] In 2005 money spent on pharmaceutical marketing in the US was estimated at $29.9 billion with one estimate as high as $57 billion.[3] When the US number are broken down 56% was free samples, 25% was detailing of physicians, 12.5% was direct to consumer advertising, 4% on hospital detailing, and 2% on journal ads.[4] In the United States approximately $20 billion could be saved if generics were used instead of equivalent brand name products.[3] Although pharmaceutical companies have made large investments in marketing their products, overall promotional spending has been decreasing over the last few years, and declined by 10 percent from 2009 to 2010. Pharmaceutical companies are cutting back mostly in detailing and sampling, while spending in mailings and print advertising grew since last year.[23] Historical Marketing Pharmaceutical companies have employed various methods of marketing their products and this idea can be understood by the phrase â€Å"How would you like to be in an industry where your buyers are uninformed about your product and almost 100 per cent insensitive to its price?† (The Business Edge Consortium, 2010). For many decades this was true. Around the mid 80s this started to change â€Å"The result of these industry conditions was impressive profit growth through the middle of the 1980s. With significant barriers to entry, docile suppliers, powerless buyers, almost no threat of substitutes, and little rivalry, the pharmaceutical industry in the 1980s was just about as perfect an industry as one could imagine. Given its attractiveness, the industry attracted the attention of genetic and molecular biology scientists and the venture capital community, who saw its appeal and thought their revolutionary approaches to drug therapy could attract enough money to overcome the for midable entry barriers the industry enjoyed. Thus, as scientific advances in biotechnology took hold, numerous entrepreneurial companies like Genentech and Amgen were founded to commercialize new scientific breakthroughs. Genentech, the first biotech firm having commercial success, developed a protein that broke up blood clots. Amgens famous molecular biology used recombinant DNA to produce erythropoietin, a hormone that increases the supply of red blood cells in anaemic patients under treatment for cancer and other diseases. By 2000, erythropoietin was generating $2 billion in sales and another $3 billion in licensing revenue for Amgen. Both of these new entrants fared very well in this attractive industry:Genentech went public in 1980, and by 2001 its shares had appreciated 2700 per cent since its IPO. Amgen shares, first offered in 1983, soared more than 16,000 per cent. Starting in the mid-1980s, the barriers to enter the pharmaceutical industry began to show cracks. New legislation made it easier for generic drug companies to enter the market. In the USA, the 1984 Waxman-Hatch Act, which changed the rules for generic drug manufacturers, reduced the barriers to generic entry. Instead of having to prove the generic drugs safety and efficacy, the act required companies only to prove their formulas were equivalent to that of the brandname drug. The subsequent growth in generic drugs was profound. By 1996, generic drugs accounted for more than 40 per cent of pharmaceutical prescriptions. Aside from the influx of generics, the pharmaceutical companies also saw a wave of biotechnology competitors enter their industry Genentech, Amgen and many others suggesting that economies of scale meant less than they used to, and that barriers to entry, while still high in absolute terms, were dropping, thanks in part to the availability of venture capital. Further, the biotech companies new science-focused research model, known as rational drug design, stood the traditional approach to drug discovery on its head. These drug companies worked backwards from known disease biochemistry to identify or design chemical ‘keys to fit the biochemical ‘locks of that disease.† Traditionally they employed very effective strategies that includes educational sponsorship to cover the costs of continuing instruction for top medical personnel, sponsorship of articles in well-respected journal publications, providing free drugs samples to doctors and promotional gifts that include a corporate logo or specifics about a drug the idea behind the promotional marketing is to simply connect the new drug with an old medical symptom and encourage the writers of the prescription to fulfill the marketing cycle. Promantally pharmaceutical samples are still given out to doctors as a promotion and marketing tactic and it works (Alexander, Zhang Basu, 2008). A few generations ago these forms of marketing worked well for the pharmaceutical companies. However circumstances have changed. The FDA seeks to discourage the intimate connection between pharmaceutical companies and their pharmaceutical representatives is the connection to the doctors prescribing medicines, these days d octors see more patients and fewer pharmacy drug representatives, additionally there is a continuing trend by hospitals, doctors and pharmacies towards being conservative in their recommendations and prescriptions because of lawsuits of all kinds (Pharmaceutical Industry History, 2007). Medical drug malpractice suits in the US are rising. Fiscus (2008) writes that â€Å" In the United States, the growing use of DTC advertising has raised challenges to one of the strongest defenses available to drug manufacturers against failure to warn allegations in product liability suits for prescription drugs and medical devices: the learned intermediary doctrine. Under this doctrine, a manufacturer fulfills its duty to warn by adequately informing a learned intermediary, typically a physician.† Current Marketing .In 2010 the global pharmaceutical market is worth over 825 million with a large percentage of this comes from newer and mature drug products and there are over 100,000 health-related websites (The Business Edge Consortium, 2010). The statistics show that marketing by pharmaceutical companies is changing because of external pressures. There has been a dramatic rise in U.S. physicians routinely using d the web to check or research information making the relevance of digital promotion all the more important Pharmaceutical companies have risen to the changing challenge of Internet marketing and now promote and advertise doctor friendly physician and customer service online portals like PubMed, the U.S. National Library of Medicine, National, and Physicians Interactive (Kaitin, 2010). Pharmaceutical marketers are relying more on connecting digital medical information to their target audience through focused marketing, interactive social media campaigns, and cell and mobile linked advertising all targeted to connect to the 145 million + U.S. adults who go online for health answers . The old saying â€Å" time is money† is accurate in the case of pharmaceutical companies as it takes upwards of 15 years to develop a potential drug which only has a 8% probability of getting out of trials and going to market. Therefore it is a necessity to carefully control costs and expenses where possible. One major area of expense has been having marketing representatives which were costing out as high as15 to 20% of a pharmaceutical companies annual drug product revenues. As pharmaceutical company overall expenses and costs have additionally escalated over the last few generations there is a need to reduce expenses down where possible. So the switch from costly pharmaceutical representatives to cheaper graphic marketing is easily understood. Finkelstein (1997) wrote that Competitive and technological changes in the pharmaceutical industry-from powerful new drug chemistries to innovative RD partnerships and marketing plans-are reshaping the business strategies of many phar maceutical and biotechnology companies Given these cost pressures it is understandable that the pharmaceutical companies are looking for better ways to market their drugs. The newest strategy is now to promote what is known as marketing blockbuster medical drugs directly to the consumer public. The idea was to empower the consumer. Right now only the United States and New Zealand allow pharmaceutical products promoted by DTC (Pharmaceutical Drug Manufacturers, 2011). When an individual consumer requests information and the medicine by name by their Doctor some of the responsibility while also applying pressure on the doctor to prescribe the new medicine. Additionally both the small and large pharmaceutical companies are now using digital media to promote their products. From TV and cable to Internet ads consumers are constantly being made aware of the virtues and minor drawbacks of a number specific pharmaceutical drugs. The reasoning behind this strategy by the pharmaceutical companies is relatively simple, if they can promote their products and make its trade name and cure synonymous with the ongoing medical complaint in the publics mind, then they can create momentum utilizing the end customer. Another reason for doing this is to get any of their major blockbuster drugs to pay for the company costs for their other company made drugs sold in smaller volumes Another reason for marketing these blockbuster drugs as to make a success of these drugs synonymous with the company name creating consumer goodwill towards the next product. The latest trend is for reduction in the number of blockbuster drugs and pharmaceutical companies delvin g back into their former research to find potential missing new specialized drugs, .this can be seen clearly by the reduction in applications to the FDA showing ever reducing numbers of new drugs. Another complication that pharmaceutical companies must contend with is the ever-growing number of over-the-counter substitutes (OTCs) that the consumers choose to purchase as an alternative. Over a period of 20 years Naprosyn was widely prescribed as an arthritis remedy but now is available as an over-the-counter drug. A whole spectrum of drugs from arthritis to antihistamines are now available without prescription providing relief to customers but adding little to the economic bottom line of pharmaceutical companies that originally developed these drugs. Another complication in drug marketing is the force exerted by HMOs on doctors and what doctors prescribe .Generally the majority of HMOs are not big on covering high prescription costs for new medicines recently brought to market. The economics are easily understandable because it is not about a single client which needs a single drug but the numbers are multiplied by the potential hundreds of thousands. Therefore HMOs seek to be conservative. And because of that they create a potential customer roadblock for pharmaceutical companies with the new drug on the market at a very high price. Because of the HMO will not cove r the price then the customer must, which generally means the consumer settles for less than the newest product. managed care organizations (MCO), compared with 5 per cent of the US population covered in 1980. These MCOs typically provided full coverage for prescription drugs. But, because of their sheer mass, these institutions had considerable bargaining power with drug companies If present industry overview is taken into consideration then the global pharmaceutical market in 2010 is projected to grow 4 6% exceeding $825 billion. The global pharmaceutical market sales is expected to grow at a 4 7% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) through 2013. This industry growth is driven by stronger near-term growth in the US market and is based on the global macroeconomy, the changing combination of innovative and mature products apart from the rising influence of healthcare access and funding on market demand. Global pharmaceutical market value is expected to expand to $975+ billion by 2013. Different regions of the world will influence the pharmaceutical industry trends in different ways. http://www.da-group.co.uk/index.php?option=com_contentview=articleid=31%3Amicro-and-macro-environmentscatid=2%3Amarketing-lecturesItemid=3 CURRENT CHALLENGES FOR THE RESEARCH-BASED INDUSTRY To understand why â€Å"business as usual† is no longer an option for the research-based drug industry, it is worth considering some of the myriad challenges that drug companies currently face. At the top of the list is the upcoming onslaught of patent expirations of many highrevenue- generating branded medicines. Between 2009 and 2012, worldwide sales for these products will exceed $112 billion (Table 1). Included in this list are 36 blockbusters (drugs with annual sales of $1 billion or more). Some important examples include Singulair (montelukast), with more than $4 billion in annual sales (patent expiration in 2012); Plavix (clopidogrel), with more than $8 billion in annual sales (patent expiration in 2011); and Lipitor (atorvastatin), with an industry-leading $13.7 billion in annual sales (patent expiration in 2010). Given that only 3 in 10 new products, on average, generate revenues equal to or greater than average industry RD costs,1 the loss of patent protection on the se blockbusters represents a very real threat to the industrys ability to sustain its own growth. Without question, many of the large pharma mergers and acquisitions announced in 2009 reflect the industrys desire to avoid the imminent danger of the patent cliff, rather than an interest in enhancing RD capabilities or scope. The current environment for innovation presents formidable economic, regulatory, and political challenges for the research-based pharmaceutical industry. In particular, the growing time, cost, and risk related to drug development are stubborn obstacles to filling industry pipelines and boosting the output of new pharmaceutical and biological products. Presented here is a model of an innovation network. Although structures may vary, the innovation network offers the best mechanism to ensure viability and economic success for all sectors of the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry, as well as the uninterrupted flow of innovative lifesaving and life-improving medicines for waiting patients. The Rise of Contract Research Organizations Clinical trials are administered by investigators at hospitals, academic institutions or managed sites. The investigators find and enroll healthy and symptomatic volunteers, each of whom is required to sign an informed consent acknowledging acceptance of the drug and its potential side effects. The testing protocol and informed consent form are monitored by Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) in the sites where the trials are conducted. In essence, the IRB acts as an ethics committee to ensure the safety of patients and volunteers. Once clinical trials are completed, the data are subjected to biostatistical analysis over a 6 to 12 month period.3 If the data yield promising results, the sponsor seeks final approval though a New Drug Application (NDA). The NDA must contain all scientific information the sponsor has gathered and typically fills 100,000 pages or more.4 During the review period, the FDA assesses the safety and effectiveness of th e drug, the manufacturing process, and the risk-benefit calculus.5 By law, the FDA has 180 days to either approve the application or notify the sponsor of the opportunity to request a hearing on the merits of the application.6 In practice, however, the FDA review process takes more than two years; in 1996, for example, the mean approval time for NDAs was 17.8 months, down from over 30 months during the late 1980s.7 Following approval, the FDA may require additional post-market research. Post-market surveillance regulations require the sponsor to collect and periodically report additional safety and efficacy data.8 In addition, the FDA may request further clinical research (Phase IV) to find new uses for the drug, test dosage formulations, compare the drug to competitors treatments, and assess long-term effects.9 Finally, pharmaceutical Conclusions A continuous call for ethical standards by pharmaceutical companies that market in the United States is often put aside because company marketing and business model of making profits matter more.(Pharmaceutical Drug Manufacturer, 2011). Brezis (2008) writes that the US public will lose out in the long run because the pharmaceutical companies are more focused on marketing and profits than about public health. Drug trial deaths still happen and have been described as a trade secret. It is not just one of the big pharmaceutical companies by Johnson Johnson, Merick and others whose own safety documents raise concerns that are buried in stacks of papers while marketing continues (Brezis, 2008). But this is offset by the ability of both the doctor and patient to use the Internet to search out the detailed information and become truly informed. Each of them can then make an informed decision about the benefits and potential drawbacks of using pharmaceuticals.

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is a new multidisciplinary science interfering with many research areas and aspects. This technology deals with so small particles ranges from 1 to 100 nm (Birla et al., 2009; Husseiny et al., 2015). Nanoparticles of some metals like Au, Ag, Pt and Cu have paid more attention because of their biotechnological benefits (Rai and Duran, 2011). Research revealed the multiapplication of nanoparticle due to their unique properties in electronics, medicine, agriculture, pharmaceutic and environment (Nanda and Majeed, 2014; Dasgupta et al., 2015). Metal nanoparticles emerged as an alternative variety of antibacterial agents against strains of high resistance to the classical antibiotics (Naseem and Farrukh, 2015). Nanoparticles were used as antiviral agents (Gaikwad et al., 2013), effective antibacterial (Singh et al., 2013), cancer cells and antitumor (Daenen et al., 2014). Many researches have been directed to apply the nanoparticles of metals as anthelmintic (Garga and Chandrab, 2012), antifungal (Kim et al., 2012), antiprotozoal (Said et al., 2012), , acaricidal (Marimuthu et al., 2013) and larvicidal (Muthukumaran et al., 2015). Nanoparticles have many chemical and physical characteristics that differ from the metallic particles. Specific characteristics of nanoparticles such as their optical, physicochemical, mechanical properties make them crucial in many applications. Therefore, nanoparticles could be the key factor for the future technologies. Scientific as well as public associations are paying their attention for nanoparticles technology as a good investment source. Nanoparticles could be produced via physical, chemical or biological methods (Haider and Kang, 2015; Ebrahiminezhad et al., 2017). Both chemical and physical methods use reducing agents such as sodium borohydride, sodium citrate and alcohols (Rai and Duran, 2011). However, using of microorganisms in synthesis of nanoparticles represents another great achievement because of the economic and ease production (Shelar and Chavan, 2014; Patel et al., 2015). Research revealed that biological methods is an inexpensive and eco-friendly way for synthesis of nanoparticles. This method used biological agents including bacteria, fungi, yeast and plants (Mourato et al., 2011). Recently, emerging such microorganisms as eco-friendly nano-factories to manufacture inorganic nanoparticles was attractive (Lee et al., 2004; Lengke et al., 2007). Fungi were mentioned as excellent candidates for metal nanoparticle synthesis because they contain many of enzymes that induce the production (Sastry et al., 2003). It was assumed that the mechanism involved in nanoparticles production by fungi was due to cell wall sugars that could reduce the metal ions (Mukherjee et al., 2002) and because they have the high cell wall binding capacity, metal uptake and secrete more amounts of proteins lead to the higher productivity of nanoparticles (Vahabi et al., 2011). Fungi have some advantages over the other microorganisms regarding the synthesis of NPs, because fungal mycelia are able to resist pressure, high temperature and easy storage in the laboratory (Kiran et al., 2016). There are many of metals for biosynthesis (NPs) such as copper, zinc, iron, iron trichloride, lead carbonate, gold and silver (Siddiqi and Husen, 2016). In addition, silver NPs could be synthesized by fungi either intracellularly or extracellularly but the extracellular biosynthesis downstream process much easier and showed more activities against many pathogens (Ahmad et al., 2003). Among the active fungi that were reported to produce nanoparticles; Rhizopous oryzae produced nanoparticles intracellularly of gold (Das et al., 2012), Verticillium sp extracellularly peodcued gold and silver nanoparticles (Soni and Prakash, 2014) in the size range of 20–51 nm. However, F. oxysporum produced nanoparticles of silver of 5–15 nm and 8-14 nm in diameter extracellularly (Ahmad et al., 2003; Senapati et al., 2005). Many other fungi were approved for their productivity of nanoparticles of different metals either extracellularly or intracellularly including: Phoma sp. (Chen et al., 2003), the endophytic fungus Colletotrichum sp. (Shankar et al., 2003), Aspergillus fumigatus (Kuber and D'Souza, 2006) , Fusarium acuminatum (Ingle et al., 2008) , Trichoderma asperellum (Mukherjee et al., 2008), F. semitectum (Sawle et al., 2008), Phoma glomerate (Birla et al. 2009), F. solani (Ingle et al., 2009) , plant pathogenic fungi Aspergillus niger (Gade et al., 2008; Jaidev and Narasimha, 2010), Aspergillus flavus (Vigneshwaran et al., 2007; Jain et al., 2011) , Paecilomyces lilacinus (Devi and Joshi, 2012), endophytic fungus Pencillium sp. (Singh et al., 2013), Aspergillus foetidus (Roy and Das, 2014), Rhizopus stolonifer (AbdelRahim et al., 2017), Penicillium Oxalicum (Bhattacharjee et al., 2017) and Trichoderma atroviride (Saravanakumar and Wang, 2018). Many recent reports have shown that production of nanoparticles by fungi are could be affected by various condition of temperature, biomass weight, time and pH ( Balakumaran et al., 2016; Liang et al., 2017; Othman et al., 2017). Husseiny et al. (2015) reported that most important factors that were affecting the biosynthesis of AgNPs were the temperature, pH, time, the concentration of AgNO3 and amount biomass. Narayanan and Sakthivel (2010) approved that incubation at 27 0C for 72 h with 7 pH and 10 g of the fungal biomass and 1mM concentration of AgNPs were considered the optimum conditions for production of AgNPs from AgNO3 by fungi. Researches showed some variations in the characteristics of the biosynthesized AgNPs by different fungal species. These variations could be due to the source of fungal isolates or strains and types of medium (Devi and Joshi, 2012; Roy and Das, 2014). When Alam et al. (2017) compared the different types of media, they found Czapex dox broth was a good medium to produce enough mycelial biomass to synthesize AgNPs. This because this medium contains essential carbon and nitrogen source along with other vital macro and micronutrients such as magnesium, sodium, calcium, potassium, iron and zinc which are vital for fungal growth.Nowadays, application of AgNPs confirmed their effectiveness in treatment of cancer, bone implant, anti-inflammatory and their biocidal activity against many bacteria and pathogens (Husseiny et al., 2015; Majeed et al., 2016). The antibacterial properties of AgNPs are due to the oxidation and liberation of Ag+ ions into the environment that makes it an ideal biocidal agent (Sivakumar et al., 2015). It is expected that the large surface area to volume ratio as well as high fraction of the surface atoms of the nanoparticles increase their antimicrobial activity as compared with bulk silver metal (Joy and Johnson, 2015). Moreover, the small size of the nanoparticles facilitates their penetration inside the cell. Additionally, excellent antibacterial properties exhibited by AgNPs are due to their well-developed surface which provides maximum contact with the environment (Mitiku and Yilma, 2017). Recent research approved the antibacterial activity of the silver nanoparticles against many bacteria especially those having the capability to cause severe disease for the human such as Salmonella enterica, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococci and Pseudomonas sp (Devi and Joshi, 2012; Shelar and Chavan, 2014; Muhsin and Hachim, 2016; Madakka et al., 2018; Saravanakumar and Wang, 2018). However, shape, dimension, and the exterior charge as well as the concentration of the AgNPs are important factors that affect the antimicrobial activity the nanoparticles against the tested bacteria (Madakka et al., 2018). Devi and Joshi (2012) approved the antibacterial activity of AgNPs comparing with erythromycin, methicillin, chloramphenicol and ciprofloxacin agents Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Salmonella enterica and Enterococcus faecalis. They showed that the diameter of inhibition zones obtained by the silver-nanoparticles, with 5-50 nm in diameter, were more than those obtained by the antibiotics. Shelar and Chavan, (2014) showed that Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus sp were inhibited by silver nanoparticles with diameter of 17-32 nm in very close pattern to the standard antibiotic streptomycin. Muhsin and Hachim (2016) reported the best concentration of silver nanoparticles with diameter 8-90 nm that showed strong antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus aureus streptomycin was 100 Â µl/ ml. Based on the above-mentioned information, we assume that fungi as bio-factories for the biogenic synthesis of the silver nanoparticles are very interesting during eco-friendly and safe technology, also for future application as antimicrobial agents. Nanotechnology Nanotechnology is a new multidisciplinary science interfering with many research areas and aspects. This technology deals with so small particles ranges from 1 to 100 nm (Birla et al., 2009; Husseiny et al., 2015). Nanoparticles of some metals like Au, Ag, Pt and Cu have paid more attention because of their biotechnological benefits (Rai and Duran, 2011). Research revealed the multiapplication of nanoparticle due to their unique properties in electronics, medicine, agriculture, pharmaceutic and environment (Nanda and Majeed, 2014; Dasgupta et al., 2015). Metal nanoparticles emerged as an alternative variety of antibacterial agents against strains of high resistance to the classical antibiotics (Naseem and Farrukh, 2015). Nanoparticles were used as antiviral agents (Gaikwad et al., 2013), effective antibacterial (Singh et al., 2013), cancer cells and antitumor (Daenen et al., 2014). Many researches have been directed to apply the nanoparticles of metals as anthelmintic (Garga and Chandrab, 2012), antifungal (Kim et al., 2012), antiprotozoal (Said et al., 2012), , acaricidal (Marimuthu et al., 2013) and larvicidal (Muthukumaran et al., 2015). Nanoparticles have many chemical and physical characteristics that differ from the metallic particles. Specific characteristics of nanoparticles such as their optical, physicochemical, mechanical properties make them crucial in many applications. Therefore, nanoparticles could be the key factor for the future technologies. Scientific as well as public associations are paying their attention for nanoparticles technology as a good investment source. Nanoparticles could be produced via physical, chemical or biological methods (Haider and Kang, 2015; Ebrahiminezhad et al., 2017). Both chemical and physical methods use reducing agents such as sodium borohydride, sodium citrate and alcohols (Rai and Duran, 2011). However, using of microorganisms in synthesis of nanoparticles represents another great achievement because of the economic and ease production (Shelar and Chavan, 2014; Patel et al., 2015). Research revealed that biological methods is an inexpensive and eco-friendly way for synthesis of nanoparticles. This method used biological agents including bacteria, fungi, yeast and plants (Mourato et al., 2011). Recently, emerging such microorganisms as eco-friendly nano-factories to manufacture inorganic nanoparticles was attractive (Lee et al., 2004; Lengke et al., 2007). Fungi were mentioned as excellent candidates for metal nanoparticle synthesis because they contain many of enzymes that induce the production (Sastry et al., 2003). It was assumed that the mechanism involved in nanoparticles production by fungi was due to cell wall sugars that could reduce the metal ions (Mukherjee et al., 2002) and because they have the high cell wall binding capacity, metal uptake and secrete more amounts of proteins lead to the higher productivity of nanoparticles (Vahabi et al., 2011). Fungi have some advantages over the other microorganisms regarding the synthesis of NPs, because fungal mycelia are able to resist pressure, high temperature and easy storage in the laboratory (Kiran et al., 2016). There are many of metals for biosynthesis (NPs) such as copper, zinc, iron, iron trichloride, lead carbonate, gold and silver (Siddiqi and Husen, 2016). In addition, silver NPs could be synthesized by fungi either intracellularly or extracellularly but the extracellular biosynthesis downstream process much easier and showed more activities against many pathogens (Ahmad et al., 2003). Among the active fungi that were reported to produce nanoparticles; Rhizopous oryzae produced nanoparticles intracellularly of gold (Das et al., 2012), Verticillium sp extracellularly peodcued gold and silver nanoparticles (Soni and Prakash, 2014) in the size range of 20–51 nm. However, F. oxysporum produced nanoparticles of silver of 5–15 nm and 8-14 nm in diameter extracellularly (Ahmad et al., 2003; Senapati et al., 2005). Many other fungi were approved for their productivity of nanoparticles of different metals either extracellularly or intracellularly including: Phoma sp. (Chen et al., 2003), the endophytic fungus Colletotrichum sp. (Shankar et al., 2003), Aspergillus fumigatus (Kuber and D'Souza, 2006) , Fusarium acuminatum (Ingle et al., 2008) , Trichoderma asperellum (Mukherjee et al., 2008), F. semitectum (Sawle et al., 2008), Phoma glomerate (Birla et al. 2009), F. solani (Ingle et al., 2009) , plant pathogenic fungi Aspergillus niger (Gade et al., 2008; Jaidev and Narasimha, 2010), Aspergillus flavus (Vigneshwaran et al., 2007; Jain et al., 2011) , Paecilomyces lilacinus (Devi and Joshi, 2012), endophytic fungus Pencillium sp. (Singh et al., 2013), Aspergillus foetidus (Roy and Das, 2014), Rhizopus stolonifer (AbdelRahim et al., 2017), Penicillium Oxalicum (Bhattacharjee et al., 2017) and Trichoderma atroviride (Saravanakumar and Wang, 2018). Many recent reports have shown that production of nanoparticles by fungi are could be affected by various condition of temperature, biomass weight, time and pH ( Balakumaran et al., 2016; Liang et al., 2017; Othman et al., 2017). Husseiny et al. (2015) reported that most important factors that were affecting the biosynthesis of AgNPs were the temperature, pH, time, the concentration of AgNO3 and amount biomass. Narayanan and Sakthivel (2010) approved that incubation at 27 0C for 72 h with 7 pH and 10 g of the fungal biomass and 1mM concentration of AgNPs were considered the optimum conditions for production of AgNPs from AgNO3 by fungi. Researches showed some variations in the characteristics of the biosynthesized AgNPs by different fungal species. These variations could be due to the source of fungal isolates or strains and types of medium (Devi and Joshi, 2012; Roy and Das, 2014). When Alam et al. (2017) compared the different types of media, they found Czapex dox broth was a good medium to produce enough mycelial biomass to synthesize AgNPs. This because this medium contains essential carbon and nitrogen source along with other vital macro and micronutrients such as magnesium, sodium, calcium, potassium, iron and zinc which are vital for fungal growth.Nowadays, application of AgNPs confirmed their effectiveness in treatment of cancer, bone implant, anti-inflammatory and their biocidal activity against many bacteria and pathogens (Husseiny et al., 2015; Majeed et al., 2016). The antibacterial properties of AgNPs are due to the oxidation and liberation of Ag+ ions into the environment that makes it an ideal biocidal agent (Sivakumar et al., 2015). It is expected that the large surface area to volume ratio as well as high fraction of the surface atoms of the nanoparticles increase their antimicrobial activity as compared with bulk silver metal (Joy and Johnson, 2015). Moreover, the small size of the nanoparticles facilitates their penetration inside the cell. Additionally, excellent antibacterial properties exhibited by AgNPs are due to their well-developed surface which provides maximum contact with the environment (Mitiku and Yilma, 2017). Recent research approved the antibacterial activity of the silver nanoparticles against many bacteria especially those having the capability to cause severe disease for the human such as Salmonella enterica, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococci and Pseudomonas sp (Devi and Joshi, 2012; Shelar and Chavan, 2014; Muhsin and Hachim, 2016; Madakka et al., 2018; Saravanakumar and Wang, 2018). However, shape, dimension, and the exterior charge as well as the concentration of the AgNPs are important factors that affect the antimicrobial activity the nanoparticles against the tested bacteria (Madakka et al., 2018). Devi and Joshi (2012) approved the antibacterial activity of AgNPs comparing with erythromycin, methicillin, chloramphenicol and ciprofloxacin agents Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Salmonella enterica and Enterococcus faecalis. They showed that the diameter of inhibition zones obtained by the silver-nanoparticles, with 5-50 nm in diameter, were more than those obtained by the antibiotics. Shelar and Chavan, (2014) showed that Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus sp were inhibited by silver nanoparticles with diameter of 17-32 nm in very close pattern to the standard antibiotic streptomycin. Muhsin and Hachim (2016) reported the best concentration of silver nanoparticles with diameter 8-90 nm that showed strong antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus aureus streptomycin was 100 Â µl/ ml. Based on the above-mentioned information, we assume that fungi as bio-factories for the biogenic synthesis of the silver nanoparticles are very interesting during eco-friendly and safe technology, also for future application as antimicrobial agents.

Author Sophocles Displays A Conflict - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 610 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/05/20 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: Antigone Essay Did you like this example? Most teenagers disobey their parents, break rules every once in a while, or rebel out of anger, stupidity, boredom or just impulsiveness. In the Greek play, Antigone, author Sophocles displays a conflict among Antigone, a teenage girl and her tyrannical, ruling uncle, Creon. When Antigoners determination and impulsiveness results in her breaking the law to bury her beloved brother, Creon, with no remorse, automatically sentences Antigone to death. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Author Sophocles Displays A Conflict" essay for you Create order Despite the fact that many characters in the play are flawed, Antigoners impulsiveness results in Haemonrs death, Creonrs downfall, and her own death. Antigoners actions have caused things to spiral out of control, and lives have been lost including Haemonrs; her future husband. When Haemon cant choose between his tyrannical, autrocious, father and his lover, he commits suicide, and soon after, so does Tiresias, his mother. When standing up for Antigone to his father, Haemon exclaims, Were you not my father, I would call you a fool (Sophocles 779). Before exiting, Haemon argues, No- not in my sight- never think this can happen! Shell not die beside me, and you will never lay your eyes upon my face again, so rage with any of your friends who can bear it (Sophocles 776). Those are Haemonrs last words before he takes his own life. If Antigone hadnt acted on Polyneices death, Haemon, and even Tiresias could still be alive, but when Haemon is put in the middle of his lover and father, it is impossible for him to decide where to stand. Creon doesnt know that by putting Antigone to death after she breaks the law, that it will lead to his downfall. Miserably, Creon says, Woe is me, these things will never fall on another person so as to exonerate me, for I killed you, O unhappy I, I claim truly. Servants, take me away right now, take me out of the way. I dont exist any more; Im no one (Sophocles 1323). A very arrogant King Creon wants to remain ?loyal and maintain his laws, however, itrs at the end when he realizes that by doing that, his sonrs and his wifers lives are taken. Before exiting, Creon exclaims, Let this rash man be led out of the way, who, my child, unwillingly slew you, and this woman, you, too- alas! I have no where to turn to, nothing to lean on, for everthing goes cross in my hands, and a difficult fate falls on my head (Sophocles 1247). It is only after his downfall that he realizes the mistakes he has made. However, by then itrs much too late to fix anything and he has lost everything. Pride and arrogance had overcome Creon, and played a huge role in his downfall. Antigone caused her own demise. Antigone is a bit too prideful and does not obey the law that King Creon has set: that no one can bury Polyneices body. Instead of following the rules, Antigone decides to bury Polyneices because he is family and she loves him. However, she doesnt see the bigger picture: death. Ill bury my brother- your brother too, too, though you refuse! Ill not be found a traitor (Sophocles 47). However, Antigone isnt a traitor. She, on the other hand, thinks otherwise. She doesnt listen to obediant sister Ismene either, who tells her she should follow the rules. Antigone argues with Ismene when Ismene says no to help bury Polyneices and states, Use that excuse, if you like, but I indeed will go and heap and tomb for my dearest brother (Sophocles 81). Antigone is being ignorant of her consequences and doesnt take them very seriously until she does. Antigoners teenage impulsivness has resulted in 3 downfalls, two of which being death.